• Chlorella, dulse, spirulina algae and kelp (1 tablespoon or 5 g) 750 µg

• Himalayan crystal salt (half a gram) 450 µg

• Cranberries (4 oz or 114 g) 400 µg

• Plain yoghurt (8 oz or 227 g) 75 µg

• Potato (one medium size) 60 µg

• Milk (8oz or 227 g) 59 µg

• Navy beans (4 oz or 114 g) 32 µg

• Turkey (3 oz or 85 g) 34 µg

• One medium sized egg 24 µg

• Cheddar cheese (1 oz or 28 g) 23 µg

• Gouda cheese (1.42 oz or 40 g) 14 µg

• Prunes (five) 13 µg

• Strawberries (8 oz or 227 g) 13 µg

• Butter beans (4 oz or 114 g) 8 µg

• Lean beef (3 oz or 85 g) 8 µg

• Apple juice (8oz or 227 g) 7 µg

• Peas (4 oz or 114 g) 3 µg

• Green beans (4 oz or 114 g) 3 µg

• Banana (one medium) 3 µg

• All essential oils

• Alcohol: Drinking during pregnancy can increase the chance of miscarrying and have devastating effects on the baby's development causing low weight at birth, slower learning and emotional and physical development abilities. Regular drinking can cause the baby to to be born with foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)  which can cause facial deformities, problems with physical and emotional development and poor memory or a short attention span. Women, who drink alcohol and work night shifts during pregnancy are more likely to miscarry. If either partner drinks alcohol it can reduce the chance of conceiving a child.

• Almonds

• Aloe vera

• Aluminium and fluoride are independently bad for the brain of a developing foetus and the combination of them both makes the damage far worse. Drink filtered of bottled mineral water, use fluoride-free natural toothpastes and avoid aluminium-containing deodorants.

• Anti-depressant medications: Taking antidepressants during pregnancy increases the child’s risk of autism by 87 percent.

• Artificial additives and sweeteners, especially aspartame.

• Astragalus (herb)

• Blue cohosh (herb)

• Blue vervain (herb)

• Cats claw (herb)

• Cheese that is mould-ripened, such as brie and camembert, and soft blue-veined cheeses, such as roquefort, aren't safe to eat in pregnancy. Unpasteurised milk and soft cheeses (especially if made from sheep and goat's milk) as these could contain listeria bacteria. Listeria can cause an infection called listeriosis that may harm the unborn baby. Hard cheeses such as parmesan and pecorino, even if they have been made with unpasteurised milk, are safe to eat, as the risk of listeriosis in these is low.

• Chemicals: Numerous cosmetics and toiletries, such as perfumes, deodorants, hair spray, hair shampoo, toothpaste, etc. contains chemicals that are dangerous to a foetus and nursing infant such as phthalates. See Hygiene and Health to find out how to make natural powerful cleaners from plants which are free from hazardous toxins.

• Chicory root

• Chinese rhubarb root is not recommended for long term use and not suitable for pregnant or breast feeding women or children under twelve years of age.

• Coffee and any other caffeine beverages such as fizzy drinks. Drinking lots of caffeine on a regular basis in pregnancy has been linked to miscarriage and babies who have a low birth weight.

• Dandelion root (herb)

• Drugs, both prescribed medication and recreational drugs can seriously damage the foetus both mentally and physically during development and should only be taken in extreme cases with the health practitioner's advice. Dextromethorphan, the major ingredient in most cough medicines, has been shown to cause birth defects and foetal death in chicken embryos exposed to concentrations relative to those typically taken by humans. Researchers found that dextromethorphan causes defects so early in the development of the embryo that in many cases the woman wouldn’t even know she is pregnant. Researchers feel that a single dose is capable of causing a birth defect and that, ultimately, it could be the cause for a woman to have a miscarriage.

• Echinacea (herb)

• Eggs: Avoid eating raw or runny eggs, as they may contain salmonella bacteria. However, eggs that have the British lion quality stamp are less likely to contain salmonella, as they come from hens that have been vaccinated against salmonella. In any case it is advisable to cook eggs until the yolks and whites are firm, as this destroys salmonella bacteria. There is a substance in the raw egg whites called avidin that is a glycoprotein that binds with vitamin B7 (biotin) preventing its absorption therefore restrict consumption of the egg whites during pregancy or consume extra foods rich in vitamin B7.

• Ephedra sinica (herb)

• Feverfew (herb)

• Fish and shellfish: Some types of fish and shellfish may have high levels of dioxins and PCBs. These are sea bream, turbot, halibut, dogfish (also called rock salmon or huss), crab and sea bass. Limit these fish to two portions a week. Oily fish is a good source of vital vitamins, minerals and protein, but as oily fish can also contain environmental pollutants (PCBs), it's best not to eat it more frequently than twice a week. Women who may become pregnant, pregnant women and nursing mothers should avoid eating too much deep sea ocean fish and shellfish. For foetuses, infants and children, the primary health effect of mercury is impaired neurological development. Mercury exposure in the womb, which can result from a mother's consumption of fish and shellfish that contain it, can adversely affect a baby's growing brain and nervous system and have impacts on cognitive thinking, memory, attention, language and fine motor and visual spatial skills. especially avoid marlin, shark, swordfish and tuna as they can contain unsafe levels of mercury. Consuming coriander or algae such as powdered chlorella or spirulina at the same time can chelate any heavy metals present in foods and are a rich source of essential vitamins and minerals often lacking in land-based crops. Avoid all raw fish and raw shellfish, such as oysters. Smoked salmon is considered safe as the curing process destroys listeria bacteria. However, if it hasn't been completely cured or frozen before being consumed, listeria bacteria may remain. To still obtain the vital omega-3 fatty acids found in sea food, krill oil is a good alternative. Krill is very short-lived so does not have time to absorb mercury like other fish and molluscs etc so is a good addition when sea food should be limited because of mercury contamination/

• Genetically modified (GM) crops and seeds contain the chemical glyphosate which have recently been linked to birth defects in birds, pigs and other animals and obviously could also be a great risk to the human foetus so should be avoided. Read more about Pesticides.

• Ginger

• Ginseng (herb)

• Japanese or Chinese knotweed (herb)

• Land caltrop (herb) can cause foetal miscarriage and must be avoided by pregnant or breast feeding women.

• Lifting more than 20kg (44lbs) during pregnancy (especially during the first trimester), obesity or being underweight increases the risk of miscarriage.

• Linden (herb)

• Liquorice root (herb)

• Marshmallow root (herb)

• Meat, except for liver, are safe to eat, as long as they have been cooked well. Take extra care if cooking barbecued meat, or microwavable ready meals that contain meat. Processed meat should be avoided such as parma ham, because of the small risk of listeria. Pate, whether made from meat, fish or vegetables, may contain listeria bacteria, which can be harmful to the baby. Heat-treated or UHT pate is safe to eat, as long as it is not made from liver.

• Mousse, homemade ice cream or mayonnaise from delis or restaurants, as these may contain raw egg. Always check that salad dressings and ice creams are made using pasteurised egg.

• Peppermint (herb)

• Phthalates are substances added to plastics vinyl to increase their flexibility, transparency, durability and longevity. Phthalates are metabolised in humans once ingested or absorbed through the skin. In pregnant women, phthalates pass through the placenta to be absorbed by the foetus. In nursing women, phthalates are found in breast milk, which means infants are ingesting these chemicals as they develop. In male foetuses and infants the phthalates have been shown to cause testicular atrophy and a reduced sperm count, among other serious health problems.

• Plums and prunes

• Potatoes: When potatoes are stored they develop black spots which are caused by the fungi Aspergillus and Fusarium. The mytotoxins created by these fungi are aflatoxin and fumosium. In pregnant women, who consume large amounts of potatoes, the two mytotoxins have been incriminated as a cause of spina bifida.

• Rosemary (herb)

• Sage should be avoided during pregnancy but may help to reduce excessive lactation when breastfeeding.

• Scutellaria (herb)

• Smoking tobacco can lead to early birth and an underweight baby and may lead to learning difficulties and a lowered immune system for the child because nicotine constricts the blood vessels and oxygen in the body is replaced by carbon monoxide.

• Sugar

• Table salt: Use Himalayan pink crystals or unrefined sea salt.

• Triclosan: The antibacterial chemical triclosan (found in hand washes, soaps and toothpastes etc) can react with the chlorine in water to produce chloroform gas. Researchers believe that over time, inhaled chloroform can result in depression, liver ailments and even cancer. It must be especially be avoided when pregnant.

• Vitamin A (retinol): High levels of vitamin A consumption can cause birth defects so excess liver and shellfish are best avoided during pregnancy.

• Yohimbine (herb)

Rhesus disease

Rhesus disease is also known as haemolytic disease of the foetus and newborn  All pregnant women should know both their own blood type as well as that of their unborn baby. When the mother has rhesus-negative blood (RhD-negative) and the baby in her womb has rhesus-positive blood (RhD-positive) the mother's immune system sees the baby as "alien" and switches to "destroy" mode because these two blood groups are incompatible, Women who are RhD-negative can receive the anti-D inoculation to stop them making antibodies that could attack the baby or choose to have an abortion if they are too frail to risk stopping their system from making antibodies.

If blood cells from a rhesus positive baby get into the rhesus negative mother's bloodstream, her blood will react as if the baby's blood is a foreign substance and will produce antibodies against it. This is not usually a problem in a first pregnancy with a rhesus positive baby. However, the antibodies that the mother produces stay in her blood, and if she has another pregnancy with a baby who is also rhesus positive, her antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the blood cells of the unborn baby. This can cause 'haemolytic disease of the newborn'.

Haemolytic disease of the newborn can be very mild, but in a small number of babies it can be more serious and cause the baby to be stillborn, severely disabled or to die after birth as a result of anaemia and jaundice.

The most common time for a baby's blood cells to get into the mother's blood, causing her to produce antibodies, is at the time of birth. However, this can also occur at other times, for example during a miscarriage or abortion, or as the result of having an amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, vaginal bleeding, or turning the baby’s head down (external cephalic version). These events are called 'potentially sensitising events'.

Rhophylac injections contain a medicine called human anti-D immunoglobulin. People whose blood type is rhesus positive (RhD positive) have a substance called D antigen on the surface of their red blood cells. People whose blood type is rhesus negative (RhD negative) are missing this antigen. Whether a person is rhesus positive or rhesus negative is determined by their genes.

Anti-D prophylaxis is offered routinely to pregnant women who are rhesus negative, unless they already have anti-D antibodies in their blood. (This is tested by a blood test at the start of the pregnancy.) Rhophylac injection is given as a single dose between 28 and 30 weeks of pregnancy. The treatment is offered regardless of whether a sensitisation event has occurred, in order to be absolutely certain that the mother does not develop antibodies against the baby.

After the birth, a blood sample will be taken to test the baby's blood group. If the baby is rhesus positive, the mother will be given a further injection of anti-D immunoglobulin. (This is called postnatal anti-D prophylaxis.) Another dose of anti-D immunoglobulin will also be given after any sensitising event that occurs during the pregnancy.

Babies can be safely breastfed after having this injection. There are no known harmful effects on the nursing infant.

Anti-D prophylaxis may not be necessary for rhesus negative mothers if there is certainty that she will not have another child following the pregnancy, for example if she is to be sterilised after the birth. It will also not be necessary if the father's blood type is also rhesus negative, as genetically this means the baby cannot be rhesus positive.

Anti-D immunoglobulin may also be used if a rhesus negative individual is given a blood transfusion of rhesus positive blood. This is to prevent the individual forming antibodies against the transfused blood.

If this medicine is given within two to four weeks of having a live vaccine, such as yellow fever, BCG or oral polio, the anti-D immunoglobulin may interfere with the immune response to these vaccines. This could make them less effective.

If live vaccines are needed after having an anti-D injection, they should be postponed until three months after the last injection of this medicine has been given.

Blood types

Alleles are different forms of a gene. They can be dominant or recessive. There are four basic blood types, O, A, B, and AB. Blood type is determined by the alleles inherited from parents. For the blood type gene, there are three basic blood type alleles: A, B, and O.

We all have two alleles, one inherited from each parent. The possible combinations of the three alleles are OO, AO, BO, AB, AA, and BB. Blood types A and B are "co-dominant" alleles, whereas O is "recessive".

A co dominant allele is apparent even if only one is present; a recessive allele is apparent only if two recessive alleles are present.

Because blood type O is recessive, it is not apparent if the person inherits an A or B allele along with it. So, the possible allele combinations result in a particular blood type in this way:

• OO = blood type O

• AO = blood type A

• BO = blood type B

• AB = blood type AB

• AA = blood type A

• BB = blood type B

You can see that a person with blood type B may have a B and an O allele, or they may have two B alleles. If both parents are blood type B and both have a B and a recessive O, then their children will either be BB, BO, or OO. If the child is BB or BO, they have blood type B. If the child is OO, he or she will have blood type O.

Stretch marks

It is important to rest with the feet up as often as possible during pregnancy. In the case of swelling of feet during pregnancy, go for a medical check-up and follow the doctor's advice as it could be a sign of an underlying condition that needs treatment. You can also do the following to reduce swelling:

Take a handful of coriander seeds and boil in a cupful of water until it is reduced to half. Strain and drink it twice a day for three days.